Ijtihād in Islamic terminology means exerting one’s utmost scholarly effort to derive legal rulings from the recognized sources of Islamic law. It is considered one of the key elements that ensures the dynamism and adaptability of Islamic jurisprudence across all schools, although differences exist in its scope, conditions, and methodology.

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1. A Shared Understanding of Ijtihād Among Islamic Schools

All Islamic schools agree that:

Ijtihād must be based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah

It applies only in cases where there is no explicit textual ruling (naṣṣ)

It requires high scholarly qualification and is not open to everyone

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2. Ijtihād in the Jaʿfarī School (Twelver Shiʿism)

In Shiʿa jurisprudence:

Ijtihād is a continuous and permanent principle

Reason (ʿaql) plays a fundamental role as a source of legal derivation

The gate of ijtihād is always open

A mujtahid must meet strict conditions, including knowledge, justice, and piety

? As a result, Shiʿa fiqh maintains strong capacity to address new and emerging issues.

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3. Ijtihād in Sunni Schools of Law

In Sunni jurisprudence:

Ijtihād was highly active in the early centuries of Islam

Each of the four Sunni schools (Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, Ḥanbalī) follows a distinct legal methodology

Tools such as qiyās (analogy), istiḥsān, and maṣāliḥ mursalah play a more prominent role in certain schools

In later periods, adherence to established schools became dominant, though ijtihād itself was never completely rejected

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4. Key Differences in Perspective

Aspect Twelver Shiʿa Sunni Schools

Status of ijtihād Permanently open Historically limited at times

Role of reason Fundamental More restricted

Taqlīd (imitation) Of a living mujtahid Mostly of a school

Flexibility High School-dependent

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5. Conclusion

Ijtihād serves as a shared mechanism for understanding and applying Islamic law across all schools. Differences do not lie in the legitimacy of ijtihād itself, but in methodological approaches and the extent to which legal tools are employed. This diversity reflects the intellectual richness of Islamic jurisprudence rather than doctrinal conflict.

The Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ are the two primary and universally accepted sources in all Islamic schools of thought—both Sunni and Shiʿa. There is no Islamic school that rejects the authority of these two sources; differences arise only in the methods of interpretation, transmission, and legal derivation, not in their fundamental legitimacy.

1. The Status of the Qur’an

In all Islamic schools, the Qur’an is:

The first and definitive source of Islam

The ultimate criterion for evaluating beliefs and legal rulings

Superior to all other sources

All schools agree that:

No legal ruling or doctrinal belief can contradict the Qur’an.

2. The Status of the Sunnah

The Sunnah, which consists of the sayings, actions, and approvals of the Prophet ﷺ, is regarded in all Islamic schools as:

The interpreter and explainer of the Qur’an

An independent source alongside the Qur’an

Essential for understanding the details of Islamic law

? Differences arise in transmission:

Shiʿa Islam considers the Sunnah to be transmitted through the Prophet ﷺ and the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s family)

Sunni Islam relies on the Prophet ﷺ and his Companions as transmitters

However, the authority of the Sunnah itself is unanimously accepted.

3. The Relationship Between the Qur’an and the Sunnah

According to all Islamic schools:

The Sunnah never contradicts the Qur’an

It explains, specifies, and clarifies Qur’anic teachings

A correct understanding of Islam is impossible without integrating both sources

4. Conclusion

The Qur’an and the Sunnah form the foundational pillars of Islamic law and belief. The unity of Islamic schools is most evident in their shared acceptance of these two sources, while differences stem from diverse scholarly methodologies in understanding and applying them, not from rejection of the Qur’an or the Sunnah.

In Islamic studies, the term madhhab is used in two main contexts: one related to practice and law, and the other related to belief and theology. Understanding the distinction between these two is essential for properly grasping differences within Islam.

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1. What Is a Juristic School (Fiqh Madhhab)?

A juristic school refers to a systematic body of opinions and methodologies used to derive practical Islamic rulings, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, transactions, and other legal matters.

Key features:

Focus: Practical religious acts and laws

Sources: The Qur’an, Sunnah, consensus (ijmāʿ), and reason (with methodological differences)

Differences mainly occur in secondary rulings (furūʿ al-dīn)

Following a juristic school is necessary for correct religious practice

Examples:

Jaʿfarī

Ḥanafī

Shāfiʿī

Mālikī

Ḥanbalī

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2. What Is a Theological School (Creedal Madhhab)?

A theological school refers to a structured set of beliefs concerning the fundamental principles of faith, such as monotheism (tawḥīd), prophethood, resurrection, divine justice, and leadership (imamate or caliphate).

Key features:

Focus: Beliefs and doctrines

Sources: The Qur’an, Sunnah, and rational theology

Differences occur in core doctrinal principles

Blind imitation (taqlīd) is not acceptable; belief must be based on conviction

Examples:

Twelver Shiʿism (Imāmī)

Ashʿarism

Māturīdism

Muʿtazilism

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3. Key Differences at a Glance

Aspect Juristic School Theological School

Domain Practice Belief

Subject Legal rulings Doctrines

Nature of differences Secondary issues Foundational beliefs

Taqlīd (imitation) Permissible and required Not permissible

Goal Correct practice Correct belief

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4. Conclusion

Differences between juristic and theological schools do not indicate division in Islam, but rather reflect diversity in interpreting and explaining the religion. All Islamic schools share the core principles of Islam, while differences lie mainly in methodology and interpretation.

Islamic schools of thought (madhāhib) gradually emerged during the first centuries of Islam, after the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Their formation does not represent اختلاف in the core of Islam, but rather reflects differences in interpretation, legal methodology, and historical circumstances within the shared framework of the Qur’an and Sunnah.

Major Historical Factors Behind Their Emergence:

Rapid Expansion of the Islamic World

As Islam spread across vast regions, new legal and social issues arose, requiring scholarly reasoning (ijtihād).

Unequal Access to Prophetic Traditions

Different regions—such as Madinah, Kufa, and Syria—had access to different collections of hadith, leading to varying legal opinions.

Differences in Legal Methodology

Some scholars relied primarily on hadith (e.g., the Madinan school), while others emphasized rational methods such as analogy (qiyās), particularly in Iraq.

Political and Social Conditions

Changes in political authority and governing systems influenced which scholarly approaches flourished or declined.

Role of Students and Systematic Codification

The efforts of students in recording, teaching, and organizing the views of leading jurists played a crucial role in establishing and preserving distinct schools.

 Conclusion:

Islamic schools of thought are the result of scholarly ijtihād grounded in the Qur’an and Sunnah, with differences mainly in secondary legal rulings rather than in the fundamentals of faith.

Suggested Academic Sources

Murtadha Motahhari, An Introduction to Islamic Sciences (Fiqh)

Rasul Ja‘fariyan, History of Shi‘ism in Islam

Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddimah

Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Islamic Jurisprudence and Its Evidences

O you who have believed! Do not follow the footsteps of Satan! Whoever follows the footsteps of Satan, he commands indecency and evil!

(An-Nur: 21)

The word “steps” is the plural of خطوات meaning “step” and means the distance between the two feet of a person while walking.

Following the footsteps of Satan means walking on the path that Satan shows.

In the Holy Quran, Satan is introduced as the enemy of God and the enemy of man. It is very strange to trust the sworn enemy!!! And to move in the path that he shows!!!

The connection of this noble verse with the previous verses shows that one of Satan's important plans to drag human societies into the mud is the spread of immoral acts and to eliminate their ugliness. Let us be careful!!!

 Every path except the right path is the path of Satan and ends in the displeasure of the Merciful God. Let us be careful!!!

Tafsir Ahlul Bayt (a.s.) Vol. 1, p. 788

The Obligation of Performing Hajj Once in a Lifetime for Every Eligible Muslim

Text of the Fatwa

Based on the consensus (ijmāʿ) of all Islamic schools of jurisprudence—both Sunni and Shiʿa,

Hajj is an individual and obligatory duty (farḍ ʿayn) upon every Muslim who is adult, sane, and financially and physically capable (mustatīʿ), and it must be performed once in a lifetime.

Delaying it without a valid شرعی (legal) excuse is not permissible.

Qur’anic Evidence (Agreed Upon by All Schools)

Clear Qur’anic Verse

“And due to Allah from the people is a pilgrimage to the House—for whoever is able to find a way to it.”

(Qur’an 3:97)

This verse is the primary and undisputed foundation for the obligation of Hajj in all Islamic jurisprudence.

Hadith Evidence (Sunni and Shiʿa Sources)

1. Prophetic Hadith (Sunni Sources)

The Messenger of Allah ﷺ said:

“O people, Allah has made Hajj obligatory upon you, so perform Hajj.”

Source:

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Book of Hajj

2. Narration from Imam ʿAlī (Shiʿa Sources)

Imam ʿAlī (peace be upon him) said:

“Allah has made obligatory upon you the pilgrimage to His Sacred House.”

Source:

Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 1

Juristic Consensus (Joint Ruling)

Scholars of the following schools unanimously agree on the obligation of Hajj:

Jaʿfarī (Shiʿa Imami)

Ḥanafī

Shāfiʿī

Mālikī

Ḥanbalī

This unanimous agreement is known in Islamic jurisprudence as Ijmaʿ al-Muslimīn (the consensus of Muslims).

Summary of the Joint Fatwa

 Hajj is:

A definitive divine obligation

Individually obligatory (farḍ ʿayn)

Required once in a lifetime

Conditional upon financial ability, physical capability, and safety of travel

 Final Juristic Conclusion:

Every Muslim who meets the conditions of ability is religiously obligated to perform Hajj, and abandoning it without a valid excuse is considered sinful.

Abstract

Intercession (Shafāʿah) is one of the fundamental concepts in Islamic theology and has long been a subject of debate and misunderstanding. While some view it as contradictory to divine justice or pure monotheism, others recognize it as a manifestation of God’s vast mercy. This article reexamines intercession through the Qur’an and authentic prophetic traditions, demonstrating that Shafāʿah is neither irrational nor anti-tawḥīd, but rather an integral part of the divine system grounded in God’s absolute sovereignty, wisdom, and mercy.

1. Defining Intercession and Distinguishing It from Misconceptions

Linguistically, Shafāʿah means “to join one thing to another in order to reach a goal.”

In Qur’anic terminology, intercession refers to:

The mediation of divinely honored servants—by Allah’s permission—to convey mercy, forgiveness, or elevation in rank to other servants.

Key clarifications:

Intercession is not a replacement for divine justice

Nor does it imply independent power for anyone besides Allah

Rather, it is entirely dependent on Allah’s will and permission

2. Intercession in the Qur’an: Negation of Independence, Not of Reality

2.1 Verses That Negate Independent or False Intercession

The Qur’an states:

“So the intercession of intercessors will not benefit them.”

(Qur’an 74:48)

And:

“A Day when no soul shall avail another, nor will intercession be accepted from it.”

(Qur’an 2:48)

These verses address:

Disbelievers

Or the belief in intercession without Allah’s permission

They do not negate intercession altogether.

2.2 Verses That Explicitly Affirm Authorized Intercession

In contrast, the Qur’an clearly affirms conditional intercession:

“Who is it that can intercede with Him except by His permission?”

(Qur’an 2:255)

And:

“They do not intercede except for one whom He approves.”

(Qur’an 21:28)

These verses establish that:

Intercession is real

It is regulated, purposeful, and divinely sanctioned

3. Intercession in the Prophetic Traditions and the Teachings of Ahl al-Bayt

3.1 The Intercession of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ

The Prophet ﷺ said:

“I was granted intercession, and I have saved it for my Ummah.”

(Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim)

This narration shows that:

Intercession is a divine gift

The Prophet ﷺ is authorized, not independent, in exercising it

3.2 The Intercession of Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s Family)

Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (peace be upon him) said:

“We are the intercessors on the Day of Resurrection.”

(al-Kāfī)

The intercession of Ahl al-Bayt:

Is not a justification for sin

But a means of salvation for those who maintain faith and spiritual connection

4. A Contemporary Analytical Perspective: Intercession as a Moral and Educational System

A common perception limits intercession to a purely eschatological phenomenon.

However, a deeper reading of the Qur’an and Hadith reveals that:

Intercession functions as a moral and spiritual system, not a blind privilege.

This is evident because:

Intercession is restricted to “those whom He approves”

It encourages attachment to righteous role models

It preserves hope without eliminating moral responsibility

Thus, intercession:

Complements repentance (tawbah)

Prevents despair (ya’s)

Strengthens ethical accountability

5. Addressing the Alleged Conflict Between Intercession and Divine Justice

Justice means:

Placing everything in its proper position.

Intercession:

Is not a violation of justice

It is part of divine law itself

Just as:

Forgiveness does not negate justice

Legal leniency under specific conditions is not injustice

Intercession represents:

Justice integrated with mercy, not justice denied.

6. Conclusion

Based on the Qur’anic verses and authentic narrations examined above, it is evident that:

✔ Intercession:

Has deep roots in the Qur’an

Is firmly established in the Sunnah of the Prophet ﷺ and the teachings of Ahl al-Bayt

Is strictly conditional upon Allah’s permission

Is fully compatible with tawḥīd and divine justice

Final Conclusion:

Intercession is not an escape from responsibility, but a path back to divine mercy;

not a weakening of monotheism, but a profound expression of Allah’s absolute sovereignty over the order of existence.

1. The Islamic Position: Death Is Not Annihilation

In Islam, death is not non-existence, but a transition from one realm to another (from dunya to barzakh).

The soul remains alive, conscious, and aware by Allah’s permission.

2. Qur’anic Verses Often Misunderstood

Some cite verses such as:

“You cannot make the dead hear.”

(Qur’an 27:80; 30:52; 35:22)

Correct Interpretation

Classical scholars agree that these verses are metaphorical, not literal.

They compare disbelievers to the dead:

Just as a dead body does not respond,

Disbelievers do not respond to guidance.

 These verses are not denying hearing in the barzakh.

Major scholars who affirmed this interpretation:

Ibn Kathīr

al-Qurṭubī

al-Ṭabarī

3. Explicit Hadith: The Dead Do Hear

a) The People of Badr (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī)

After the Battle of Badr, the Prophet ﷺ stood over the bodies of slain Quraysh leaders and said:

“Have you found what your Lord promised to be true?”

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb said:

“O Messenger of Allah, how do you speak to bodies without souls?”

The Prophet ﷺ replied:

“By Him in Whose Hand is my soul, you do not hear what I say better than they do.”

 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Book of Funerals

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim

 This is an explicit, authentic statement that the dead can hear.

b) Hearing Footsteps After Burial

The Prophet ﷺ said:

“When a servant is placed in his grave and his companions leave, he hears the sound of their footsteps.”

 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim

This hadith proves:

Consciousness

Perception

Hearing immediately after death

4. The Prophets Are Alive in Their Graves

The Prophet ﷺ said:

“The Prophets are alive in their graves, praying.”

 Reported by al-Bayhaqī

 Classified authentic by many scholars

 If ordinary believers hear, then the Prophets hearing is beyond doubt.

5. Sending Salām to the Prophet ﷺ

The Prophet ﷺ said:

“There is no one who sends peace upon me except that Allah returns my soul to me so that I may respond to his salām.”

 Sunan Abī Dāwūd

 Musnad Aḥmad

This proves:

The Prophet ﷺ hears salām

He responds, by Allah’s permission

6. Scholarly Consensus on Limited Hearing

Ahl al-Sunnah and Shiʿa scholars agree:

✔ The dead can hear,

✔ but not independently,

✔ only when Allah allows.

Ibn Taymiyyah himself stated:

“The dead can hear in certain situations, as established in authentic hadith.”

(Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā)

7. Logical Conclusion

If the dead hear footsteps,

hear speech at Badr,

hear salām sent from anywhere in the world,

then hearing duʿāʾ, salām, or words of Tawassul is not strange or impossible.

8. Final Conclusion

✔ The dead do hear, by Allah’s permission

✔ This is proven by explicit, authentic hadith

✔ Qur’anic verses denying hearing are metaphorical, not literal

✔ The Prophets and righteous are more aware, not less

 Therefore:

Belief in the hearing of the dead—especially the Prophets and righteous—is firmly established in the Qur’an, Sunnah, and classical Islamic scholarship.

1. The Core Principle: Tawassul Is Directed to Allah, Not to the Dead

The fundamental point is that in Tawassul—even after a person’s death—

? the request is made to Allah alone,

? while the Prophet or righteous person is only a means (wasīlah) and a servant honored by Allah.

Thus, the issue is not “asking the dead for help,”

but rather calling upon Allah by virtue of the status of His righteous servants.

2. Qur’anic Evidence: The Living State of the Righteous After Death

a) The Life of the Martyrs (and by extension, the Prophets and Saints)

Allah says:

“Do not think of those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Rather, they are alive with their Lord, receiving provision.”

(Qur’an 3:169)

If martyrs are alive after death, then the Prophets, Imams, and righteous saints are even more deserving of this living, conscious state.

b) The Prophet’s Awareness of Deeds After His Death

Allah says:

“And say: ‘Act, for Allah will see your deeds, and His Messenger and the believers as well.’”

(Qur’an 9:105)

According to many narrations from both Shiʿa and Sunni sources:

“the believers” refers to the righteous servants of Allah

Seeing deeds requires awareness and perception, even after death

3. Explicit Hadith Evidence for Tawassul After the Prophet’s Death

a) The Hadith of the Blind Man Applied After the Prophet’s Passing

The Companion ʿUthmān ibn Ḥunayf narrates:

A man had a need that was not fulfilled during the caliphate of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān.

ʿUthmān ibn Ḥunayf taught him the supplication:

“O Allah, I ask You and turn to You through Your Prophet Muhammad…”

 Key points:

This incident occurred after the death of the Prophet ﷺ

A Companion taught the same form of Tawassul

The man’s need was fulfilled

Sunni sources:

al-Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr

al-Bayhaqī

Ibn Ḥajar al-Haytamī (Shāfiʿī scholar)

b) Tawassul at the Grave of the Prophet ﷺ by the Companions

Mālik al-Dār, the treasurer of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, narrates:

During a drought, a man came to the grave of the Prophet ﷺ and said:

“O Messenger of Allah, ask Allah to grant rain to your الأمة (community).”

The Prophet ﷺ then appeared to him in a dream and informed him that rain would come.

 This narration is recorded in:

al-Muṣannaf of Ibn Abī Shaybah

Major Sunni scholars such as Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī graded it as authentic.

4. Do the Dead Hear? Qur’an and Sunnah

a) Qur’anic Verses About “Not Hearing the Dead”

Allah says:

“You cannot make the dead hear.”

(Qur’an 27:80)

Scholars explain that this verse is metaphorical, comparing disbelievers to the dead.

b) Authentic Hadith: The Dead Do Hear

The Prophet ﷺ said regarding the slain disbelievers at Badr:

“You do not hear what I say better than they do.”

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Book of Funerals

This clearly proves that the dead are capable of hearing, by Allah’s permission.

5. Rational Argument

Death is not annihilation, but a transition

The soul remains alive

If praying for the dead is permissible,  then seeking nearness to Allah through a righteous soul is even more reasonable

Tawassul is simply supplication combined with honoring those close to Allah

6. Final Conclusion

✔ Seeking Tawassul to Allah through righteous servants after their death:

Is consistent with the Qur’an (life after death)

Is established through authentic Sunnah and the practice of the Companions

Is in harmony with sound reason

Does not constitute shirk in any way

Conclusion:

Tawassul to Allah through righteous believers after their death is not only permissible, but firmly rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah.

1. The Meaning of Tawassul

Tawassul literally means “seeking a means” or “using a الوسيلة (means) to reach a goal.”

In Islamic theology, Tawassul refers to seeking closeness to Allah through His chosen and righteous servants, such as the Prophets and the divinely guided ones.

In Shiʿa belief:

Allah alone is the independent actor, and the righteous are only means and channels of His grace.

2. Tawassul in the Holy Qur’an

a) A Clear Qur’anic Command to Seek a Means

Allah says:

“O you who believe! Fear Allah and seek a means of nearness (wasīlah) to Him.”

(Qur’an 5:35)

This verse clearly commands believers to seek a means to Allah.

The verse does not restrict this means to a specific action; according to many Shiʿa and Sunni commentators, the most evident examples of wasīlah are the prophets and the righteous servants of Allah.

b) Tawassul through the Prophet during His Lifetime

Allah says:

“If they had come to you when they wronged themselves, and asked Allah for forgiveness, and the Messenger had asked forgiveness for them, they would have found Allah Accepting of repentance, Most Merciful.”

(Qur’an 4:64)

This verse explicitly approves seeking forgiveness through the Prophet (peace be upon him).

c) Tawassul in Previous Nations

The brothers of Prophet Joseph (Yusuf) said to their father:

“O our father, ask forgiveness for our sins for us.”

(Qur’an 12:97)

Prophet Jacob (Yaʿqub) did not reject their request, which proves that asking a righteous servant to pray on one’s behalf is Qur’anic.

3. Tawassul in the Prophetic Tradition (Sunnah)

The Hadith of the Blind Man

A blind man came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and asked for healing.

The Prophet taught him to supplicate, saying:

“O Allah, I ask You and turn to You through Your Prophet Muhammad…”

This hadith is narrated in authentic Sunni sources such as Sunan al-Tirmidhi and Sunan al-Nasa’i, and it is one of the clearest proofs for the permissibility of Tawassul through the Prophet.

4. Is Tawassul Shirk (Polytheism)?

Shirk means attributing independent power to other than Allah.

Tawassul, according to Shiʿa belief, means:

Asking Allah by the rank and closeness of His chosen servants — not considering them independent from Him.

A rational example:

• When a sick person goes to a doctor, he does not believe the doctor is God.

• The doctor is a means, not an independent source of healing.

If Tawassul were shirk:

• The Qur’an would not command it

• The Prophet would not teach it

• The righteous generations would not practice it

5. Tawassul from the Perspective of Reason

Reason tells us:

• Allah has established the world based on causes and means

• Just as we use means in material matters, using means in spiritual matters is logical

• Tawassul respects the wise system Allah has placed in creation

6. Conclusion

✔ Tawassul:

• Is rooted in the Qur’an

• Is established in the Sunnah of the Prophet

• Is consistent with sound reason

• Does not contradict pure monotheism (Tawḥīd)

 Therefore, according to Shiʿa Islam:

Tawassul is a completely logical, Qur’anic, Prophetic, and monotheistic belief.